Disclaimer: This piece merely reflects my own understanding of this deity based on my research and experiences.

📜 Ing in England

There are 3 chief places we find evidence of the figure of Ing in early England:

• 📍 • In East Anglia, we find a town named Ingworth (Ingworþ ‘Ing-enclosue’), located in modern Norfolk, as well as three towns named Ingham (Inghám ‘Ing-home’), located in modern Norfolk, Suffolk, and southeast Lincolnshire.
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• 👑 • In Northumbrian king-lists (particular the Bernician lines), we find an ancestral figure called Ingui, as well as a king named Ingibrand (‘Ing-flame/sword’); other (pre-Norse) theophoric names found in England include Ingwulf, Ingibeald, and Ingiþrýþ. ^❦1Parker MS Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, year 547; North 1997, p. 42-43; Onomasticon anglo-saxonicum; ^❦2There are also many attested theophoric names with the Ing- element found on the continent: among the Cheruschi, there is Inguiomer; among the Franks, there are Queen Ingundis and Queen Ingoberga; and in other parts of 7th-9th century Germany, we find Inguin, Ingulf, Ingobald, Ingobert, Inghildis, Ingedrudis, and Ingoflidis
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• 🪨 • In the Old English Rune Poem, the rune ᛝ, representing the sequence /nɡ/ [ŋɡ], is called Ing.

Each of these elements will be returned to in the sections below.

🌌 Runic Ing

This is a rather enigmatic stanza, but there are 3 associations it suggests to us:

• • a connection with the Éastdene ‘East-Danes’
• • a connection with warriors
• • a connection with a wagon

The final issue of the wagon is perhaps the most mysterious, but some scholars, chiefly Marijane Osborn (1980) ^❦3Osborn 1980, p 388-389 , connect it with the constellation called carles wǽn by Ælfríc of Eynsham in Dē temporibus annī and Bede in Dē nātūrā rērum, which later came to be called The Plough and is now better known as Ursa Major / The Big Dipper. Osborn extrapolates from this connection a possible identification of the poem’s titular Ing with the neighboring constellation Boötes ‘the plowman,’ which also bears a resemblance to the shape of the Old English rune. This is an interesting possibility, given the association between Ing and the harvest presented below.

The recognition of Ing as a hero among warriors is also an aspect we will discuss further below. However, we first should investigate the importance of Ing amongst the Éastdene ‘East-Danes.’

🌅 Ing with the East-Danes

According to the early English, who were the Éastdene? We find an answer in the poem Béowulf, which identifies them with the Scyldings, the Danish people whom Hróðgár rules: Hróðgár himself is called the aldor éastdena ‘chief of the East-Danes’ (392a) and the ǽrest éastdena ʻforemost of the East-Danes’ (616a), and the group as a whole are referred to by this term again after Béowulf fulfills his promise to them (827b). The poem does much more than just identify the East-Danes for us, however — it also seems to corroborate what we see alluded to in the Rune Poem about Ing and the East-Danes, as Hróðgár is also called eodor ingwina ‘protector of the Ing-friends’ (1044a) and fréa ingwina ‘lord of the Ing-friends’ (1319a).

Edward Pettit (2020) ^❦4Pettit 2020, ch 6 also connects an important sword in Béowulf with Ing. The brand ‘firebrand’ of Healfdene, Hróðgár’s father, which Hróðgár gifts to Béowulf, is described right before the first instance of Hróðgár being called a protector of the Ing-friends; this may remind us of the Bernician king by the name of Ingibrand. Pettit suggests that this sword may be the same sword with which Béowulf fails to slay the dragon, where it is called incgeláf, a term which does not have an agreed-upon translation, but has been suggested to be translatable as ‘Ing’s heirloom’ by some scholars, including Richard North. ^❦5North 1997, p 75 In any case, there is at least a clear relationship drawn in Béowulf between Hróðgár’s people and Ing.

Looking beyond Béowulf to other sources mentioning the Scyldings, we do not find much in the way of connections to Ing, but what we can find in Hrólfs saga kraka (chapter 6) is an account suggesting that Hróarr (= OE Hróðgár) departed from Denmark to live in Northumbria, the very place we find Ingui and Ingibrand listed as ancestral kings. While we should be careful not to take this account as plainly factual, it is an interesting data point connecting Ing with both the East-Danes and the Northumbrians through the figure of Hróðgár/Hróarr.

However, continuing to look to other sources beyond Béowulf, it is not the Scyldings who seem to have the closest connections with Ing, but rather the Scylfings, better known in Norse sources as the Swedish Ynglings.

👑 Yngvi & the Ynglings

In the partially attested Skjǫldunga saga ‘Saga of the Scyldings,’ the god Óðinn is euhemerized as an ancestor coming out of Asia who gave Denmark to his son Skjǫldr (Béowulf’s Scyld, ancestor to Hróðgár) and Sweden to his son Yngvi. Snorri Sturluson’s Ynglinga saga identifies this Yngvi, also called Yngvi-freyr, with the god who is elsewhere simply referred to as Freyr; similarly, the poem Lokasenna calls Freyr Ingunar-freyr. Both Adam of Bremen’s 11th century Gesta Hammaburgensis ecclēsiae pontificum and Saxo Grammaticus’ 12th century Gesta Dānōrum document the existence of a significant cult of Freyr at Uppsala, Sweden, a fact corroborated by other sources and archeological evidence.

There is much more known about the character Freyr in Norse sources, where he is a god associated with fertility and the harvest. He is also said in the poem Skírnismál to have had a magic sword which he gifts to Skírnir, a sword which Pettit (2020) connected with the brand in Béowulf discussed above. Under the name Yngvi/Ing(vi), he is present in many Scandinavian theophoric names to this day, such as Ingmar, Ingvar, Ingvild, etc.

We also find further parallels to the Old English references to Ing in several Norse sources. A connection with a wagon, as was mentioned in the OE Rune Poem, can be found in the 14th century Ǫgmundar þáttr dytts, where an idol of Freyr is drawn by a wagon (chapter 7). Much like Hróðgár and the Scyldings in Béowulf, Sigurðr of the Vǫlsung cycle is also designated as a ‘friend of Ing,’ being called freys vinr ‘Freyr’s friend’ (Sigurðarkviða in skamma 24) and yngva konr ‘man/descendant of Yngvi’ (Reginsmál 14). Aside from the famous hero Sigurðr, we also see a broader association between Yngvi and warriors by way of a skaldic kenning for ‘warriors’: yngvifreys meinvinnandi ‘harm-workers of Yngvi-freyr.’ ^❦6Eyvindr skáldaspillir Finnsson· Háleygjatal 11 These references suggest at least a small level of consistency between how the figure of Yngvi was viewed in Scandinavia and the the few references to Ing we find in Old English sources.

🐗 Ing & the Boar

In Old Norse sources, the image of the boar is connected closely with Freyr/Yngvi. There is of course the famous boar Gullinbursti constructed by dwarves for Freyr, which became either Freyr’s steed (Húsdrápa) or the beast who drove Freyr’s chariot (Gylfaginning), but there is also the sonargǫltr boar sacrificed and eaten at Yule in saga Heiðreks konungs in vitra (chapter 10). Snorri’s Nafnaþulur gives vaningi ‘one of the Vanir’ as a heiti (poetic synonym) for ‘boar’; this name is also used of Freyr himself in Skírnismál. Another heiti for ‘boar’ in Nafnaþulur is þrór ‘flourishing,’ a name given for Óðinn elsewhere, but also potentially for Freyr as suggested in Ynglingatal ^❦7McKinnel 2005, p 148 , where the Ynglings are called the niðkvísl þrós ‘descendant-branch of Þrór.’

The boar is also more broadly associated with warriors (another potential Ing connection) in Germanic iconography, both in literary sources and in the archeological record. Tacitus mentions that Germanic warriors even during his time wore boar-images. Returning to Béowulf, we find a couple connections between boars and the Géats. Upon the men in Béowulf’s host eoforlíc scionon / ofer hléorberan gehroden golde ‘boar-figures shone over gold-adorned cheek-guards’ (303b-304b), a piece of verse which perfectly describes the boar-figure cheek-guard on a helmet uncovered at Sutton Hoo. ^❦8cf. also the Benty Grange helmet with a boar atop, found in Derbyshire

An even clearer connection is found in the Geatish nobility with a character Eofor Wonréding ‘Boar, son of Wonréd,’ mentioned in the later portions of Béowulf (2486b, 2964a, 2993a, 2997a). This character is the brother of a character Wulf and a member of the Wulfingas, a Geatish clan to which Hróðgár’s wife Wealhþéow belonged, and to which the Norse figure Helgi Hundingsbani is also mentioned to have belonged. A connection between this clan and boars is significant considering the possibility that the Wulfings were the ancestors of the East Anglian ruling Wuffings ^❦9Newton 1993 ; East Anglia is the region where we find both the Sutton Hoo boar-helm and the three Ing place-names mentioned above. Given that Geatland was situated between both the Ynglings and the Ing-friend Scyldings, it would be unsurprising that they too had strong connections with Ing, and a Geatish influence in East Anglia may further explain the particular clustering of ‘Ing’-named towns in the region. However, this Geatish connection with East Anglia remains tentative.

☀️ Ing the Shining Elven King

In the poem Grímnismál 5, we are told that alfheim frey gáfu í árdaga / tívar at tannféi ‘the gods gave Elf-home to Freyr as a tooth-fee in days of yore.’ In Vǫluspá 16, we also learn that Yngvi is the brother of Alfr ‘Elf.’ This evidence, as well as the common alliterative formula pairing gods and elves and the rarity of the use of the term vanr outside of alliterative contexts ^❦10cf. Simek 2010, p 10-19; cf. F & J Roper 2011, p 29-37 , have led philologists like Alaric Hall (2007) ^❦11Hall 2007 to identify the Vanir with elves. Hall further identifies qualities attributed to the Vanir, particularly Freyr and Freyja, also present in Old English usage of vocabulary related to elves — particularly solar associations and beauty.

In Gylfaginning, Snorri says that Freyr ræðr fyrir regni ok skini sólar ok þar með ávexti jarðar ok á hann er gott at heita til árs ok friðar ‘governs the rain and sun’s shining, and with the fruits of the earth, and to him it is good to call for abundance and peace’ (chapter 24). Elves are also associated with the sun via the term alfrǫðull ‘elf-disc’ for the sun. Lotte Motz emphasizes this connection, stating that “the sun was the elves’ instrument.” ^❦12Motz 1973, p 96 A connection of the elves and Freyr with the sun and shining may remind us of the ‘firebrand’ in Béowulf, an observation also made by Pettit. ^❦4Pettit 2020 Hall also connects the radiance and beauty of Freyr, Freyja, and the elves in Norse sources with the Old English term ælfscíene ‘beautiful; (literally) elf-sheen, elf-radiant.’

Surprisingly, the sense of a radiant elven king, while not explicitly tied to Ing in any attested Old English sources, may have survived in and influenced the depiction of elven or fairy kings in later medieval English sources. For example, in Sir Orfeo, a Middle English lay retelling the classical myth of Orpheus and Eurydice, instead of descending into a dark and dim Underworld ruled over by Hades, the the titular Orfeo finds a fair cuntray / as bright so sonne on somers day / smothe and plain and al grene ‘a fair country as bright as sun on a summer’s day, smooth and level and all green’ (line 351-353). This faerie realm is repeatedly described as radiant, as is its king — we are even told of his crown that as bright as the sonne it schon ‘as bright as the sun it shone’ (line 152). Even if later English references such as these turn out not to be actually connected with early Germanic attributes of Ing, they nonetheless demonstrate a lasting association in the culture between otherworldly elven beings and solar radiance and beauty.

🐎 The name of Ing

While some Norse sources do treat Freyr and Yngvi as different characters, they are treated as equivalent more often than not, and the name Freyr itself seems to derive from the Proto-Germanic *frawjaz, a variant of *frawjô ‘lord’ attested in other Germanic languages (e.g. Old English fréa ‘lord’); this origin suggests that Freyr may have begun as an epithet for the deity, an idea possibly strengthened by the title Yngvi-freyr ‘lord Yngvi.’

The n-stem declension of Yngvi, meanwhile suggests a Proto-Germanic form *Ingwô, while the form Yngling suggests the simultaneous existence of an unattested Norse *Yngr derived from Proto-Germanic *Ingwaz or *Inguz, both of which could serve as origins for Old English Ing (and the other continental Germanic names bearing the Ing- element). The most common etymology given for this form is from Proto-Indo-European *néḱus ‘mortal; dead.’ ^❦13cognates include Ancient Greek νέκυς nékus & Avestan 𐬥𐬀𐬯𐬎 nasu ‘corpse,’ Tocharian A oṅk & B eṅkwe ‘man,’ and Irish éag & Welsh angau ‘death’

An etymology of ‘(mortal) man’ for the name of a significant deity in Germanic sources may seem odd, but a potential bridge from this prehistoric origin to the status of solar and fertility god in later sources may be discernable in the account of Tacitus, who writes of the people of Germania that:

Though we must take this source with healthy skepticism, we at least see that Tacitus was aware of a possible Germanic tale that included an ancestral deity whose name was the origin of that of the Ingaevōnēs, for which a Proto-Germanic form *Ingwaz, *Inguz, or Ingwô would provide a good candidate. Examining this account further, we also see that this *Ing- character is the son of a figure named Mannus, most likely related to the word ‘man, person’ in many Germanic languages. Whether Tacitus is recording the result of deified originally-human ancestors or original deities who were given names that brought them into the fold of human ancestry (possibly to give legitimacy to human community leaders) is unknowable at present, but either scenario could explain the naming of these deities with terms originally meaning ‘man’ or ‘mortal.’ ^†A reference in Ynglinga saga associating Freyr with the barrow, and a reference to Gullinbursti as a ‘barrow-boar’ in Húsdrápa 7, might also be distant echoes of an original association with mortality. Thanks to Sigrún for reminding me of this!

🌿 Ing’s presence in Béowulf?

When considering the Norse names of Yngvi-freyr and Ingunar-freyr, it is difficult not to be reminded of the near-cognate reference to Hróðgár in Béowulf (1319a) as fréa ingwina. While this verse seems clearly to refer to Hróðgár, is it possible that there are references to the ‘lord’ Ing himself in the poem?

Scanning up just a few lines, we see in the manuscript that Hróðgár awaits whether the alf walda ‘elf ruler’ (1314a) will deliver the Danes from their plight. This alf walda is often taken as a scribal error for alwalda ‘almighty’, which elsewhere refers to the Christian God. Hall ^❦14Hall 2007, p 67 tentatively posits that this verse is perhaps a heathen entity (maybe Ing?) to whom Hróðgár turns in despair. Raymond Tripp Jr. (1989) ^❦15Tripp 1989, p 630-632 asserts that this compound is in fact a reference to Béowulf himself. Benjamin Slade (2003) suggests that this designation may be related to Béowulf’s possession of the Brósinga mene ‘necklace of the Brósings’ given to him by Wealhþéow (of the Wulfings), a necklace which many ^❦16e.g. North 2006, p 194; Lindow 2001 have compared to the goddess Freyja’s Brísingamen, variously translated as ‘necklace of the Brísings’ or ‘fire-necklace’ (of uncertain ultimate origin). While it remains uncertain if this is simply a misspelling of the word ‘almighty’ or a reference to Béowulf or some other character, it is still conspicuous as a word which, if taken as is in the manuscript, aptly describes Ing.

Another conspicuous Ing-alike name given in Béowulf is that of the father of the character Finn, Folcwalda ‘folk-ruler’ (1089b). This name appears also in the pedigree of Hengest given in the Historia Brittonum, and it is conspicuous because it is cognate with the designation of Freyr in Skírnismál 3 as Folkvaldi goða ‘folk-ruler of the gods.’

Another figure in Béowulf potentially connected with Freyr is Fróda ‘Wise [one],’ king of the Heathobards, who in Norse sources is instead often a relative to Hróarr (= Hróðgár) and Halfdan (= Healfdene). In Snorri’s Ynglinga saga and Saxo’s Gesta Danōrum, Fróði is the father of Halfdan, and in Grottasǫngr he is the son of Skjǫldr. Rudolf Simek ^❦17Simek 1984, p 112; Simek 2008, p 92 actually equates Fróði with Freyr, with evidence including the fact that the Fróðafrið ‘Fróði’s peace’ begins when Freyr builds the temple at Uppsala in Ynglinga saga, the place of Fróði in the line of the Skjǫldungar (= Scyldings), the Ing-friends of Béowulf, and the direct naming of Freyr as inn Fróði ‘the Wise [one]’ in Skírnismál 1.

The origins of the Scyldings given at the begining Béowulf is perhaps the most conspicuous place to look for Ing’s presence in the poem. There we learn that Scyld Scéfing (= Skjǫldr) was their ancestral leader, and to him was born a son Béow. Similarly, a genealogy of Scéaf(a) to Scyld to Béow(a) (with many variant spellings) is found in many of the attested Old English royal lineages. ^❦18Chronicon Æthelweardi; Anglo-Saxon Chronicle; Anglian Collection T; cf. Prose Edda (Bjáf) and Gesta Regum Anglōrum Examining their names, however, adds another layer of interest, as they mean ‘sheaf,’ ‘shield,’ and ‘barley’ respectively. Béow(a) in particular, under whose rule the Scyldings in Béowulf are said to have prospered greatly, is of interest when investigating Ing-connections, as his name is cognate with the Norse Byggvir who is mentioned only in Lokasenna as a servant of Freyr.

Viktor Rydberg (1891) ^❦19Rydberg 1891, p 135 went as far as to equate Scéafa with Yngvi-Freyr himself, an equation also made a century later by Craig Davis (1996). ^❦20Davis 1996, p 115 Such an identification binds the Scyldings even closer with Ing and provides another possible layer through which to interpret the Scyldings’ story in Béowulf. When the poet tells us that God sent the Danes Scyld’s heir Béow as a relief for their distress, the poem reads þone god sende / […] him þæs líffréa / wuldres wealdend woroldáre forgéaf ‘God sent him […] the Life-lord, ruler of glory, gave them worldly-honor’ (13b-17b). On the surface, this reads as unsurprising in a Christian context, but it might also recall the designation of Freyr as veraldargoð ‘world(ly)-god; god of the world’ in Ynglinga saga 13. Continuing through the poem, we learn that Béow received feohgifte (21a) ‘treasure-gifts,’ which may carry another layer of meaning considering Freyr’s near-cognate heiti Fégjafa ‘Treasure-giver’ recorded in Skáldskaparmál 14; the other feohgifte in the poem are given first by the Ing-friend Hróðgár and later by the aforementioned Finn son of Folcwalda (cognate with yet another name for Freyr).

Through these buried references, we can begin to feel the looming presence of Ing as a figure in the background of much of the poem, particularly in the context of friendship, gifts, and bounty, all contexts we should expect given what we learn of Freyr in Norse sources.

📝 A quick summary

Below is a quick summary of some of the key points presented in the earlier sections of this page:

• • In England, Ing is attested in East-Anglian placenames, in Northumbrian royal genealogies (and theophoric names, such as Ingibrand), and in the Old English Rune Poem.
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• • The Rune Poem associates Ing with the East-Danes, warriors, and a wagon; the wagon may be a reference to the Big Dipper (The Wagon/Plough), and could connect Ing himself with the neighboring constellation Boötes (The Plowman).
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• • In the poem Béowulf, we learn that the East-Danes are the Scyldings governed by Hróðgár, and they do indeed have a relationship with Ing, as they are called the ‘Ing-friends.’ Hróðgár’s father Healfdene is said to have owned a brand ‘firebrand’ sword which Hróðgár bequeaths to Béowulf, and this sword may be the sword which the poem later calls the incgeláf. Also, in Hrólfs saga kraka, Hróðgár is said to have migrated to Northumbria.
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• • In Norse sources, the character of Yngvi, usually equated with Freyr (Yngvi-freyr), is the ancestor of the Swedish Ynglings. In these sources, Yngvi is associated with fertility and the harvest, as well as a wagon and with warriors.
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• • Yngvi/Freyr is also associated with boars, a common warrior symbol in Germanic culture for which we also find parallels in Béowulf amongst the Géats, and in East Anglian artifacts at Sutton Hoo; The Geatish Wulfing clan in particular are connected with boars, and may even have served as the ancestor of the East-Anglian Wuffing dynasty.
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• • Norse sources also associate Yngvi/Freyr with solar radiance and beauty, and give him the role of Elven King. We similarly see an association between elves and radiant beauty in Old English, and some later medieval English poetry echoes an association between elves, elven kings, and solar radiance.
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• • The name Freyr was likely an epithet originally, being cognate with terms for ‘lord’ in other Germanic languages (e.g. Old English fréa). Meanwhile, Yngvi and Ing likely derive from an Indo-European word for ‘mortal.’ Tacitus’ account in Germānia of Tuistō, Mannus, and the father of the Ingaevōnēs may serve as a bridge for us to understand how a term originally meaning ‘mortal’ could have developped into the name of a divine ancestral figure and, eventually, an important deity associated with fertility and abundance.
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• • There are many odd and obscure references in the poem Béowulf which may be buried allusions to the god Ing; he may even be present in euhemerized fashion as the Scylding figure Fróda and as the ancestor (Scéaf) of Scyld, Béow, and the rest of the Scyldings. Some references to gift-giving amongst characters in the poem may also have oblique connections to this deity of peace and abundance.

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🍂 Notes

• ^❦1 Parker MS Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, year 547; North 1997, p 42-43; Onomasticon anglo-saxonicum;
• ^❦2 There are also many attested theophoric names with the Ing- element found on the continent: among the Cheruschi, there is Inguiomer; among the Franks, there are Queen Ingundis and Queen Ingoberga; and in other parts of 7th-9th century Germany, we find Inguin, Ingulf, Ingobald, Ingobert, Inghildis, Ingedrudis, and Ingoflidis
• ^❦3 Osborn 1980, p 388-389
• ^❦4 Pettit 2020, ch 6
• ^❦5 North 1997, p 75
• ^❦6 Eyvindr skáldaspillir Finnsson· Háleygjatal 11
• ^❦7 McKinnel 2005, p 148
• ^❦8 cf. also the Benty Grange helmet with a boar atop, found in Derbyshire
• ^❦9 Newton 1993
• ^❦10 cf. Simek 2010, p 10-19; cf. F & J Roper 2011, p 29-37
• ^❦11 Hall 2007
• ^❦12 Motz 1973, p 96
• ^❦13 cognates include Ancient Greek νέκυς nékus & Avestan 𐬥𐬀𐬯𐬎 nasu ‘corpse,’ Tocharian A oṅk & B eṅkwe ‘man,’ and Irish éag & Welsh angau ‘death’
• ^† A reference in Ynglinga saga associating Freyr with the barrow, and a reference to Gullinbursti as a ‘barrow-boar’ in Húsdrápa 7, might also be distant echoes of an original association with mortality. Thanks to Sigrún for reminding me of this!
• ^❦14 Hall 2007, p 67
• ^❦15 Tripp 1989, p 630-632
• ^❦16 e.g. North 2006, p 194; Lindow 2001
• ^❦17 Simek 1984, p 112; Simek 2008, p 92
• ^❦18 Chronicon Æthelweardi; Anglo-Saxon Chronicle; Anglian Collection T; cf. Prose Edda (Bjáf) and Gesta Regum Anglōrum
• ^❦19 Rydberg 1891, p 135
• ^❦20 Davis 1996, p 115

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📚 Bibliography

• 🔖 Davis, C 1996· Beowulf and the Demise of Germanic Legend in England
• 🔖 Eyvindr skáldaspillir Finnsson· Háleygjatal 11, D Whaley (ed) 2016· Poetry from the King’s Sagas 1: From Mythical Times to c. 1035, p 210
• 🔖 Hall, A 2007· Elves in Anglo-Saxon England: Matters of Belief, Health, Gender and Identity
• 🔖 Lindow, J 2001· Handbook of Norse Mythology
• 🔖 McKinnel, J 2005· Meeting the other in Norse myth and legend
• 🔖 Motz, L 1973· “Of Elves and Dwarves.” Arv: Tidskift för Nordisk Folkmennisforskning
• 🔖 Newton, S 1993· The Origins of Beowulf: And the Pre-Viking Kingdom of East Anglia
• 🔖 North, R 1997· Heathen Gods in Old English Literature
• 🔖 ——— 2006· “The King’s Soul: Danish Mythology in Beowulf,” Origins of Beowulf: From Vergil to Wiglaf
• 🔖 Osborn, M 1980· “Old English Ing & his Wain,” Neuphilologische Mitteilungen 81
• 🔖 Pettit, E 2020· The Waning Sword: Conversion Imagery and Celestial Myth in Beowulf
• 🔖 Roper, F & Roper, J 2011· “Verses versus the Vanir: Responses to Simek’s ‘Vanir Obituary,’” RMN Newsletter
• 🔖 Rydberg, V 1891· Teutonic Mythology: Gods and Goddesses of the Northland I
• 🔖 Simek, R 1984· Lexikon der germanischen Mythologie
• 🔖 ——— 2008· A Dictionary of Northern Mythology
• 🔖 ——— 2010· “The Vanir: An Obituary,” RMN Newsletter
• 🔖 Tripp, R Jr 1989· “Beowulf 1314a: The hero as alfwalda, ‘ruler of elves,’” Neopohilologus 70

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