*Wargaz

Cú Chulainn, Óðinn, & lupine deviance in northwestern Indo-European cultures

The Irish mythic and legendary demigod Cú Chulainn is renowned for his superhuman strength and battle-prowess. Through his name, he is also associated with hounds and wolves, the latter being an animal subject to avoidant taboos in early Indo-European cultures. By exploring the various Indo-European vocabulary around the warrior-cult, wolves, and the social outcasts associated with them, we can come to new understandings of cultural norms and taboos and how they come into play in the stories of Cú Chulainn.

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Battle-frenzy & wolves

A defining characteristic of Cú Chulainn in his tales is his ríastrad, literally ‘distortion, turbulence,’ which is described as a state of battle-frenzy where his body grows and contorts in abnormal ways and gives him superior strength. His somewhat contradictory nature as a defender of Ulster and a threatening monster parallels the dual meanings present in his title, as cú in Old Irish meant both ‘dog’ and ‘wolf.’ However, the battle-frenzy of Cú Chulainn, and his association with wolves, finds parallels in Germanic myths as well.

In the early spread of Germanic culture in Europe, the warrior-cult grew in social prominence, as did their symbols and deities. The god *Wōdanaz, known in Old Norse as Óðinn and Old English as Wóden, was originally primarily associated with warriors and particularly the battle-frenzy or battle-rage of warriors, and his name was derived from an adjective *wōdaz ‘spirited, frenzied, furious’ found in Old English wód ‘frenzied, zealous,’ Old High German wuot ‘thrill,’ Old Norse óðr ‘mind, soul’ and œði ‘rage, fury,’ and Gothic wods ‘possessed.’^❦1 de Vries 1977 p 416·^❦2 Orel 2003 p 469 Óðinn’s additional associations with wisdom and poetry can thus be understood, as the root of *wōdaz in Proto-Indo-European, *u̯éh₂t- ‘inspired, possessed,’ is found in other Indo-European languages, such as Latin vatēs and Old Irish fáith, both meaning ‘prophet, seer’; from a suffixed form *u̯éh₂t·u-, there are also Old Irish fáth ‘prophecy’ and Middle Welsh gwawd ‘poem’ alongside Old English wóþ ‘song’ and Old Norse óðr.^❦3 Matasović 2009 p 404-405·^❦4 De Vaan 2008 In light of all these associations, one way to describe Óðinn’s total purview could be that he governed altered or deviant states of consciousness, whether that be the enraged frenzy of the battle-field, the insight of the prophet, or the inspired artistic state of the poet.

Like Cú Chulainn, the god Óðinn is also associated with wolves. Firstly, the Norse Óðinn is said to be accompanied by two wolves, Geri and Freki.^❦5 Grímnismál 19 Secondly, it is prophesied that Óðinn will be slain by the wolf Fenrir during Ragnarǫk.^❦6 Vǫluspá 40, 51 Most profoundly, the úlfheðnar ‘wolf-cloaked’ were a warrior-cult who went into battle dressed in wolf furs and were said to have been capable of changing shape into wolves (in an interesting parallel to the ríastrad of Cú Chulainn), and this cult was closely associated with Óðinn.^❦7 Davidson 1978 p 132·^❦8 Grundy 1998 p 18·^❦9 Simek 1995 p 48 The association of the úlfheðnar with this deity could have simply been due to the supposed state of battle frenzy that they entered when changing shape, but some investigation into the etymology of Indo-European words for ‘wolf’ can reveal deeper associations and taboos surounding these creatures, social deviance, and Óðinn himself.

Wolves & taboo

Both Old Norse úlfr and English wolf derive from the Proto-Germanic word *wulfaz.^❦10 Ringe 2006 p 82 This is a somewhat irregular reflex of Proto-indo-European *u̯ĺ̥kʷos ‘wolf,’ likely an alteration of the adjective *u̯l̥kʷós ‘dangerous, wild’ attested in Hittite walkuwa- ‘something negative,’ Sanskrit vṛká ‘savage, wild,’ and possible Irish olc ‘evil, bad.’^❦11 Lehrman 1987 p 13-18·^❦12 Matasović 2009 p 400 Words for both wolves and bears show widespread taboo avoidance among Indo-European language speakers due to a fear of summoning them by naming them.^❦13 Mallory & Adams 1997 p 646 While Germanic, Italic, and Greek seemed to accomplish taboo avoidance by altering the pronunciation from what would otherwise be predicted — like Germanic *wulfaz, Latin lupus and Ancient Greek λύκος are irregular derivations— both the Celtic and Armenian branches opted to avoid the root *u̯ĺ̥kʷos altogether in favor of a euphemistic *u̯ái̯los ‘howler,’ evident in Armenian gayl and Old Irish fáel.^❦14 Martirosyan 2010 p 196·^❦12 Matasović 2009 p 400 The Old Irish reflex also appeared in a compound fáelchú, wherein the second element is cú ‘dog’ which itself came to replace fáel when referring to wolves, though the former did survive into literary Irish faol. However, Modern Irish has replaced faol with an avoidant mac tíre ‘son of the land,’ while Scottish uses cù-allaidh ‘wild dog.’^❦15 Adger 2020

Another Indo-European avoidance term which also emphasizes the wildness of wolves is found in Swedish varg. This word comes not from Old Norse úlfr, but rather from vargr ‘outcast’ which, through Proto-Germanic *wargaz ‘outlaw, criminal,’ comes ultimately from Proto-Indo-European *h₂u̯érgʰ- ‘commit a crime,’ with notable cognates between Russian враг ‘foe, enemy,’ Lithuanian var̃gas ‘misery, hardship,’ Tocharian B wārṣṣe ‘highwayman, bandit,’ and Hittite hurkil ‘sin, sexual deviance.’^❦16 Derksen 2008 p 527·^❦17 Mallory & Adams 2005 p 277 In light of the Hittite cognate especially, it is important to note that the Old Norse term vargr ‘outcast’ was used as a synonym for níðingr ‘social outlaw,’ and particularly those men who were outlawed for being deemed argr^❦18 from a PIE root *h₃érǵʰ- ‘copulate’ ‘unmanly, effeminate’ for their cowardice, participation in “feminine” seiðr witchcraft, or taking a receptive role in same-sexual relations.^❦19 Brunner 1961 p 167·^❦20 Sørenson 1983 p 17·^❦21 Greenberg 1988 p 249 That the Old Norse reflex of this root for criminals should take on both same sexual and lupine connotations aligns with David Greenberg’s theory that, in northwestern Indo-European cultures, “[as] male warriors and their culture became dominant… the effeminate homosexual [sic] came to be identified with the werewolf, the sorcerer, and the outlaw and was depicted as a foul monster.”^❦21 Greenberg 1988 p 249 It is important to note that Greenberg’s use of ‘homosexual’ more accurately denotes a ‘man who takes the receptive role in same-sex sexual acts.’

Deviant lupine figures

A mythologically notable figure with lupine associations designated as argr is Loki, father of the wolf Fenrir, who is accused of playing the receptive role in sexual relations with Óðinn. Another is the god Óðinn himself, who is so called because he learned and practiced “feminine” seiðr witchcraft, a practice which may have involved transvestism and same-sex sexual activity.^❦22 Lokasenna 24, 33, 57·^❦23 Ynglinga saga ch 7 Indeed, Ármann Jakobsson argues that, in the Norse tradition, Óðinn himself became a queer figure, in spite of his association with the warrior-cult.^❦24 Jakobsson 2011 p 7 Óðinn’s deviance and transgressing of taboos provide another avenue for his connection with wolves, who themselves had taboo status throughout Indo-European cultures, as well as an assocition with deviance from cultural norms. The warrior-cult was one that operated largely outside of the rest of society, and sexual asceticism was one way that their battle-frenzy could be achieved.^❦21 Greenberg 1988 p 249 Óðinn, however, was associated with acts that were considered taboo to the warrior-cult — “feminine” witchcraft and same-sex “passivity” — and taboo too were the wolves with which the úlfheðnar adorned themselves and with which Óðinn was closely associated.

After examining the different words and concepts associated with wolves, battle-frenzy, and the warrior-cult in northwestern Indo-European cultures, we find contradictory acceptance and taboo in relation to homosocial relationships. The warrior-cult consisted of men in a comitatus relationship, where emotional closeness and even physical affection was normative (as seen in poems like Béowulf and Gúþlác). On the other hand, certain sexual acts, such as taking a receptive role in same-sex sexual relations, or performing types of magic associated with women, would be seen as humiliating, emasculating, and grounds for social exile. We find both Óðinn and wolves associated with both sides of this dichotomy, and it is at this crossroads that we also find the figure of Cú Chulainn.

Cú Chulainn at the crossroads of deviance

Cú Chulainn is associated with both wolves and deviance in his stories, but is not so closely associated as to be completely cast out of society. In his childhood, Cú Chulainn earned his name by overcoming the hound of Culann, asserting his battle-prowess and gaining an association with dogs and wolves.^❦25 “The Boyhood Deeds of Cu Chulainn” He led a young band of loyal warriors, the maccrad, which in many ways resembled the warrior-cults of Germanic cultures.^❦26 Olmsted 2019 p 144 He learned his martial arts from the Scottish warrior woman Scáthach, setting him apart from many of his counterparts.^❦27 Stokes 1908 Perhaps most poignantly, he slew his foster-brother Ferdiad by anally penetrating him with the barbed spear Gáe Bolga, which Philib Bernhardt-House suggests may have been a euphemism or pun for an erect penis, adding to what would have been seen as the humiliation of his former friend.^❦28 O’Donnell 2015 In this last example, the contrasting homosociality of Cú Chulainn’s emotionally affectionate bond with Ferdiad, and his sexually humiliating murder of Ferdiad when they were enemies on the battle-field, brings the norms and taboos of northwestern Indo-European warrior cultures into sharp focus. Cú Chulainn may have shown potential deviance through his lupine associations and his hazardous ríastrad, but through the slaying of Ferdiad, whether it be by a literal or euphemistic spear, Cú Chulainn reasserted his place within societal norms, projecting humiliation onto his former friend.

Conclusion

An examination of the vocabulary around wolves, outcasts, and battle-frenzy reveals that northwestern Indo-European cultures valorized close emotional homosocial relationships in the contexts of warrior bands while ostracizing those who partook in a “passive” role in same-sex relations. Those who were outcast from society came to be associated with the wolf, an animal already subject to avoidant taboo, and, perhaps contradictorily, associated with the warrior-cult and with heroes such as Béowulf and Cú Chulainn. While the stories of Cú Chulainn place him in proximity to deviant states and the lupine taboo, they ultimately portray Cú Chulainn’s physical reassertion of his place among the valorized warrior-cult and apart from the lupine deviance associated with other figures such as Loki and Óðinn.

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references

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bibliography

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philology